The DNA of Game Design

Introduction

In this essay, I will explore a conceptual model of game design I have dubbed the 'Problem-Solving Feedback Framework' (PSFF) that explains games at their most fundamental level, delving into their significance to human psychology and their unique place in the artistic world. Additionally, I will provide examples of the model's application as a point of game design and analysis.

The Formula & Life

At their most fundamental level, games can be broken down into layers of Problem/Goal, Solution, and Feedback. The Problem/Goal is the objective perceived by the player as needing accomplishment; the Solution is the action required to achieve this objective; and Feedback is the reward expected from solving the problem. In the case of Feedback, negative reactions to the player's solution, when it is unacceptable, can also be included. However, this negative feedback serves the purpose of guiding the player toward an acceptable solution that will provide the positive feedback they seek.

Every aspect of your game needs to keep this concept in mind at every possible level. As players engage with your game, they are continuously going through this process—encountering challenges, both in design and perception, taking action by iterating through solutions, and seeking positive feedback through rewards. Once a problem is solved and feedback is received, they progress further into the game to the next problem. This behavior continues until reaching the end of the problem chain, and the highest possible layer they can reach is solved. At this point, players feel they have extracted the last of the problems they value from the game and may stop playing.

While this process may seem like Game Design 101, what is often overlooked is why this is the case. The answer lies in the fact that this is not only how people play games but also how they function in every aspect of life. The process of encountering a Problem or Goal, taking action by iterating through solutions, and seeking positive feedback is how human beings move through life at both the conscious and subconscious levels. Whether it's completing a task at work, cooking a meal, reaching a destination, or brushing your teeth in the morning, individuals constantly perceive and approach the world in this manner. It's crucial to note that this applies even to mundane tasks, where individuals already possess adequate solutions. For example, efficiently solving the problem of cleaning your teeth in the morning allows you to quickly pass through this loop to obtain the feedback of cleaner teeth. This illustrates that even when not consciously perceiving a problem or challenge, individuals subconsciously undergo the same process.

If this is true, then at the psychological level, we progress through life and games in the exact same manner. This means that by gaining a deeper understanding of this process, we can comprehend how players engage with our games at a much deeper level and design much better games. Additionally, we can identify the unique aspect that games provide to people, distinguishing them from other art and entertainment mediums such as film. This reflection of human psychology is precisely why this model has significance, as it reflects some of the most fundamental aspects of human psychology. Let's delve into this further.

Problem/Goal

The Problem or Goal is the challenge perceived by the player. I use 'perceived' instead of 'presented' to emphasize that not every problem or goal may be something intended or given by game designers. In many cases, players might identify a problem/goal that the designers are unaware of. For example, a designer-presented Problem/Goal could be as straightforward as 'Defeat the Dragon Boss.' An example of a Problem/Goal that the designer might not be aware of could be 'Create a Character that looks like me.' While character creation is a common feature in RPGs, the consideration of what players aim to achieve with this feature is less common. If a player is unable to overcome the problem/goal they perceive and value, they may become frustrated and possibly stop playing the game. These problems can range from macro to micro, minuscule to large, or expected to unexpected.

In everyday life, this is our perception of work tasks, the need to travel to work, or the preparation of a meal. It is our mental acknowledgment of the task we are orienting ourselves to in the short term or long term

Solution

The Solution is simply the phase where the player attempts to solve the Problem/Goal they perceive. This is where the player engages with the game, utilizing their knowledge and skills to overcome the problem. This state of solution exploration and action is the player's most active state and where they spend the majority of their time, either thinking of solutions or implementing them. Therefore, it is crucial that this state is consistently enjoyable.

While the solutions to problems in games are often designed, it is important to note that players will often find solutions that designers have not anticipated. This is not necessarily a bad thing, as a healthy problem should have various possible solutions that allow players to express themselves and think creatively. Due to this, when designing the problem-to-solution dynamic, we should not be strict and limit the player to one or a few solutions. A variety of solutions has the added benefit of allowing a problem to be solved multiple times with varied degrees of success, enabling players to optimize their problem-solving.

In everyday life, we exist mostly in this state of solution-finding and performing. Whether it's spending a few minutes brushing our teeth, deciding what to eat and cooking, or choosing a movie for entertainment, this state is a human's most natural state.

Solution exploration can also be applied to multiple iterations of solved game problems, both in games and in life. If an individual is incentivized to optimize their solution or find a better one, especially if the problem is significant or recurring, they will do so. You probably have your morning routine well-optimized; similarly, elite players optimize their gameplay and solutions for specific content. This dynamic is crucial to keep in mind because it encourages players to engage with the same problem for an extended period, enhancing their overall problem-solving skills

Feedback

Feedback is the response, positive or negative, given to the player as a result of their Solution in accordance with the Problem. Positive feedback usually takes the form of the player achieving the desired response and moving on to the next problem, such as defeating a boss. Positive feedback often includes the reward given to the player for solving the problem, serving as a primary motivator. Negative feedback typically occurs when the player fails and needs to attempt to solve the problem again. Each loop of negative feedback naturally moves the player closer to acquiring the positive feedback they seek.

In everyday life, we also seek positive feedback for our actions and problem-solving. Whether it's the delicious meal cooked when hungry, the pursuit of a promotion at work, or the inherent relief of completing a difficult task, we are feedback-seeking individuals who are always looking to obtain desired outcomes.

One notable difference between video games and life is the presence of random reinforcement. Random reinforcement involves an element of chance in the outcome and, consequently, the feedback. While individuals in life rarely enjoy random reinforcement, it is unavoidable due to the complexities of life. Conversely, random reinforcement is quite rare in video games, increasingly so due to the inherent frustration and stress it applies to problem-solving behavior. Players expect that when they find and perform the right solution, it will work. This is notably different from random rewards, as rewards are still inherently positive. This difference between life and video games explains why individuals are drawn to games, allowing them to experience some of the psychological joys of life without the unclear or difficult aspects of it.

Application & Layering

Now that we have established an understanding of this formula, we can explore how to apply it directly. The first and simplest form of application is to break down your game into components of this model at both macro and micro levels.

For example, let's take our Boss fight example and break it down into:

• Problem = Defeat the Boss

• Solution = Strategy, leveling up, or brute force

• Feedback =

  • Positive: Pass the Boss and gain Equipment

  • Negative: Die and re-attempt the boss

We can break down all the key steps of a game into these loops. If we find anywhere that these loops do not make sense or are lacking in one aspect or another, this signals to designers that this step within the game needs improvement. You can apply this from the most micro loops of your game to the most macro. Generally speaking, designers will start at a fairly macro level and apply this thinking to the micro over time.

With one component loop applied, we can now envision what this will look like in a sequence. Let's take a hypothetical first level of a game and break it into three problem-solving loops: one for the first enemy, another for the second, and one last for a boss.

By breaking down our hypothetical first level like this, we begin to see the challenges players encounter, their possible options according to the design, and what they will be rewarded with at each point. We can also take note of which strategies become available to the player at each phase of the game. Here we can see the player cannot begin leveling up as a solution until they have passed the first enemy; this is due to there being no experience point source until the player has defeated the first enemy. Over time, we can also take note of what the most common solutions are for the player and adjust this if necessary. By observing that leveling up and brute force are the most common solutions available, we can ensure this is not a frustrating experience. We can also anticipate and decide if strategies such as stealth will become more prevalent in the future as we design more of the game.

Next, we can model branching paths if needed by adding another PSFF loop past the first enemy.

One of the most important aspects of the PSFF model is that it is layered; every problem has within it potentially dozens of nested micro-problems. This is what allows us to apply this model to any level. The outermost level is always to achieve the highest accomplishment within the game, whether that is simply beating the game or overcoming the hardest content in endless games. The smallest is harder to discern, but one micro-problem is the player traveling from one goal to the next, using basic movement. Understanding this layering is what allows designers to see the full picture and provide players the opportunity to constantly progress toward multiple problems at once in a meaningful way.

Ultimately, your game is an endless interconnected map of these problem-solving loops, each loop having dozens of other loops nested within and being linked to many more. The same can be said for your life; your morning routine is just a series of connected and nested loops creating a map that forms your morning routine, and you progress through that map every morning. The more we understand this, and the more detail we can go into, the more we can visualize, articulate, and understand our game.

Narrative & Psychology

A major pillar of any type of art or entertainment is narrative, so the question becomes where and how does narrative fit in with this PSFF model of games? The answer is quite simple. By turning to psychology, we can see from the work of Carl Jung and more recently Dr. Jordan Peterson that individuals perceive life and the world through narrative, holding their personality within a self-narrative that we use to orient ourselves and understand the world, as well as derive meaning from our actions and happenstances. What this means is that narrative is overlaid on top of the PSFF model to create the story of a game, just as it is overlaid on an individual's psychological processes. When we watch films, we are watching characters act out these problem-solving loops through the lens of narrative. When we play games, we are acting out those loops ourselves through the lens of a character and narrative. The degree to which we do this varies depending on the genre. Even in the case of games with very little to no plot, the player subconsciously imposes a self-narrative onto their experience of the game. Apart from the simple psychological triggers games provide, such as dopamine release, this engagement with problem-solving behaviors through the lens of a narrative is what makes games feel satisfying and meaningful to play. Both in games and in life, without these psychological narratives, the experience would be sterile, scientific, and meaningless.

Now, to apply this to our PSFF model, we can form an example by first taking a popular narrative model, such as the hero's journey, and overlaying the primary gameplay beats of an example RPG game on top of it. Each step of the hero's journey can contain at least one macro problem-solving loop, each linking to each other in a sequence to form the journey.

Now that we see how the PSFF model applies when used along with a narrative model, for this example, we can take the next step and apply a simple narrative outline to the problem-solving structure to see how narrative overlays onto the gameplay directly. Let's observe how it plays out.

Narratives, like games, are expressions of our psychology. Understanding human behavior and how narratives apply to it is key to designing good games and modeling player behaviors. When individuals play games, as they do in life, they pursue and live a narrative through the use of this problem-solving behavioral pattern.

Games & Art

Taking a quick aside, with all this in mind, we can now explore the place of games in the world of art. Art, at its most primary function, is the acquisition of truth. This notion has been explored by philosophers as far back as Plato, who posited that the purpose of art is to portray Truth, teach us about that truth, and delight us so that we willingly seek out the truth in art.

Truth is derived from narrative, and narrative, as we have touched on, is an expression of psychology. This means that art as a whole expresses the meta-psychology of human beings and with it, our understanding of truth as a whole. We tell stories, watch films, and play games as substitutes to learn wisdom from either having to experience something ourselves or seeing someone else close to us experience something.

The question falls to us: What can games do toward this function of truth acquisition that other genres of art cannot? The answer falls to the concept we have explored today. When someone plays a game, they are performing the same problem-solving psychological processes as they do in life, thus bringing us closer to a true experience of narrative. If the purpose of art is truth acquisition, and the primary way people learn truth is through living out or perceiving experiences, the perfect genre of art would provide a person with full embodiment of an experience, allowing them to engage with the experience fully. This would mean full agency, incorporating all the senses and feeling emotion. While games cannot provide all this yet, what games have added to the realm of art is agency, which is a major step toward embodiment. When you watch a film or read a book, you are unable to give the viewer or reader agency within the story due to them simply observing a character. In games, you most commonly play a character; you embody the character partially and act out their narrative. This is what games provide that no other art form has and is their unique place in the world of art.

By giving a player agency, and a step toward the embodiment of the narrative experience, we provide them the chance to perform these problem-solving loops. As we have established, this is how individuals navigate the world. This means that the more we refine these problem-solving loops and bring them closer to truth, the better we can provide games that fulfill their purpose as art, not merely entertainment.

A secondary aspect of this is why games are such effective sources of entertainment. As we have explored, games provide an outlet for this meta-process and give players the psychological satisfaction gained from this process. In life, when we perform these action loops and gain the positive feedback and reward we are seeking, we are provided a dose of happiness. Psychological literature states that the primary source of happiness for individuals is progress made toward an overarching goal, not simply completing something, which instead provides satisfaction. As designers, we must be able to utilize this knowledge, knowing that players will have the most fun when making progress towards goals while also balancing this with the satisfaction gained from completing or achieving a goal. Understanding this is key to designing games that will be successful in the market.

Conclusions

If code is the DNA of games from a technical sense, then this PSFF model would be the DNA of games from a design sense. This exploration into the foundational layers of game design, encapsulating Problem/Goal, Solution, and Feedback, has unraveled the intricacies of player engagement and the symbiotic relationship between gaming and human cognition. Beyond a mere framework for crafting games, this conceptual model provides profound insights into universal psychological processes, illustrating the parallel between gaming and real-life problem-solving dynamics. The application of the PSFF model, from macro to micro levels, exposes the interconnected web of nested problem-solving loops, enabling designers to perceive the comprehensive tapestry of challenges within a game. The interplay of Problem/Goal, Solution, and Feedback forms the heartbeat of games, guiding players through a continuous loop of exploration, action, and reward. This process, deeply ingrained in our daily existence, shapes not only how we play games but also how we navigate the complexities of reality. It's a testament to the seamless integration of games into the fabric of human behavior.

In the realm of art, games stand as unique contributors, offering agency and narrative immersion, elevating them beyond mere entertainment. Recognizing the psychological satisfaction derived from problem-solving, designers can navigate the delicate balance between goal-oriented progress and the gratification of achievement, unlocking the true potential of games as profound narratives woven into the fabric of human existence.